Which of the following element is NOT considered a primary contingency factor or formal determinant in shaping an organizational design?

Organizational design refers to the deliberate process of configuring formal structures, authority hierarchies, workflows, and responsibility relationships within a firm. The primary contingency factors influencing formal organizational design include: Strategy: Structure follows strategy to align organizational goals. Environment: Dynamic or stable external environments shape formal flexibility or rigidity. Technology: Tools and operational processes dictate workflow structures. Size: Larger organizations tend to require greater specialization and departmentalization. Why (C) is Correct: Informal social relationships emerge naturally through interpersonal interactions and social networks among employees rather than being planned or established through formal organizational design.